Book: From Saladin to the Mongols

Humphreys, R. From Saladin to the Mongols. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977.

p.1 Saladin’s reign “…represents the culmination of a process already half a century old..” which begun with his predecessors and led to “…a profound transformation in the very structure of Syro-Egyptian politics, one which divides quite abruptly the later Middle Ages from all that preceded it.”

pp.3-4 The change was threefold

1. “…within the membership of the ruling elite, one can detect a growing (if uneven) tendency to exclude civilian and religious elements from the higher levels of decision making.”
2. “…the key institution within the ruling class, the army, begins to change from a mixed corps containing a large and influential body of free-born men into a corps whose elite units and highest commands were were reserved for men of slave origin.”
3. “…the army becomes aware that its monopoly of force makes it the final arbiter of politics, and it ceases to be bound by loyalty to a hereditary dynasty.”

pp.4-5 “…local leaders were high administrative and religious officials or chiefs of local militias…” and “(a)tive indigenous support was essential to survival.”

p.5 During Saladin’s time their position began to transform, and were becoming primarily propagandists.  After his death erosion of their power began, culminating in their emasculation in the Mamluk period.

pp.11-13 Importance of Damascus

• Under siege 12 times between 1193 and 1260
• only major principality not to establish a stable hereditary succession
• agriculturally wealthy
• termination point of the major trade routes of southwest Asia – including the northern end of the Persian Gulf-Euphrates River route to India
• was the linking point between Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, northern Syria and the Jazira (during the period of Frankish control “…there was really no other way to get from one region to the other.”

pp.125-192 Two chapters of Al-Mu’azzam ‘Isa

p.125 son of al-’Adil (brother of Saladin), made prince of Damascus 1198 though al-’Adil made Damascus his second city and was dominant there.

p.145 “The basic characteristics of al-’Adil’s regime in Damascus are easily defined: puritanism in public morality, careful financial administration, and a commitment to public works.”

p.149 Apart from minor projects, al-Mu’azzam did not play a major role in public works – “…not a single inscription in Damascus dating from the reign of al-’Adil carries the name of al-Mu’azzam.” Al-Adil died in 1218.

pp.150-153 Inscriptions in the region from al-’Adil’s reign mentioning al-Mu’azzam.

pp.188-192 Character and interests of al-Mu’azzam

• permissive to an extent – reinstituted illegal taxes (e.g. on vice and gambling)
• lack of ostentation – would visit teachers on foot “…like any ordinary student.”
• Very popular among all sectors of Damascene society – Humphrey’s argues that this popularity was a political weapon as active loyalty of subjects was necessary tool in defending himself against adversaries.
• Educated – most princes of this period were well-educated in Arabic and Islamic sciences “…but it is doubtful that any so fully immersed themselves in these studies and became so competent at them as al-Mu’azzam.”
• Educated in grammar and adab by Taj al-Din al-Kindi and in fiqh by Jamal al-Din al-Hasiri.
• Major sponsor of Hanafis
• Ordered the creation of a great compilation of Arabic grammar
• p.190 “Nor were his literary interests entirely confined to these purely Arabic subjects, for it was at his court that Fath al-Din al-Bundari made his abridgement of ‘Imad al-Din al-Katib al-Isfahani’s famous history of the Seljukids and an Arabic translation of the Shahnameh (source Brockelmann).

p.184 died in Dhu-l-Qa’da 624 (Ocober-November 1227) stricken with dysentry and died the same month aged 47.

Sources

p.393 Full description of sources used by Humphreys can be found in

1. Cahen, Claude.  “Les chroniques arabes concernant la Syrie, l’Egypte, et la Mesopotamie de la conquete arabe a la conquete ottomane dans les bibliotheques d’Istanbul.” Revue des etudes islamiques, 10 (1936): 333-336
2. Elisseeff, Nikita. “A propos d’une inscription d’al-Malik al-Mu’azzam ‘Isa; contribution a l’etude de son regne.” Annales archaeologiques de Syrie S 4-5 (1954-55): 3-28

p.395 “…the great bulk of what we know about the period comes from two great works: the Mir’at al-zaman fi ta’rikh al-a’yan of the Damascene Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d.654/1256), and the Mufarrij al-kurub fi akhbar bani ayyub of the Qadi Jamal al-Din ibn Wasil (604/1208-697/1298).”